The Strategic Importance of Rare Earth Minerals: Global Landscape and Opportunities for United States Engagement
Executive Summary:

Rare earth elements (REEs) are indispensable components in a vast array of modern technologies, spanning consumer electronics, clean energy systems, and critical defense applications. Their unique magnetic, optical, and catalytic properties make them essential for high-performance magnets in wind turbines and electric vehicles, phosphors in displays and lighting, and numerous defense systems. The current global REE supply chain is heavily concentrated, with China holding a dominant position in mining, processing, and manufacturing. This concentration poses significant geopolitical risks and supply chain vulnerabilities. Furthermore, the extraction and processing of REEs have historically been associated with substantial environmental and social challenges. Several countries with significant REE reserves are seeking assistance to develop their resources. Proactive engagement by the United States through strategic partnerships, technological collaboration, and financial investment can foster a more diversified and resilient global REE supply chain, aligning with US economic and national security interests.
The Indispensable Role of Rare Earth Minerals:
The unique properties of rare earth elements are fundamental to the functionality and performance of a vast array of consumer electronics and high-technology devices. These 17 metallic elements are used as critical components in smartphones, digital cameras, computer hard disks, flat screen televisions, computer monitors, and electronic displays. For instance, lanthanum plays a crucial role in reducing distortion in the tiny glass camera lenses found in cell phones, sometimes comprising as much as 50 percent of the lens. Certain REEs, such as yttrium, europium, and terbium, are essential in the creation of phosphors, substances that emit specific colors of light when excited. These phosphors are used to produce the red, green, and blue light in screens ranging from smartphone displays to stadium scoreboards, as well as in fluorescent and LED lighting. Furthermore, neodymium magnets, renowned for their strength, are integral to the operation of smartphone speakers and computer hard drives. The infrastructure of the internet also relies on REEs, with erbium being vital for erbium-doped fiber amplifiers used in fiber-optic cables to boost signals over long distances. Overall, the incorporation of REEs enhances the performance, quality, and energy efficiency of these electronic gadgets, contributing significantly to the user experience.
Beyond consumer electronics, REEs are equally critical for the advancement and deployment of clean energy technologies. High-strength permanent magnets, essential for efficient and reliable direct-drive wind turbines, rely heavily on REEs like neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, and terbium. Similarly, neodymium-iron-boron magnets are widely used in the motors of electric vehicles (EVs) due to their high magnetic strength and resistance to demagnetization, enabling greater speeds and longer ranges. In the realm of solar energy, dysprosium and cerium are utilized to improve the efficiency and durability of thin-film solar cells. Moreover, REEs such as lanthanum and cerium are employed in rechargeable battery technologies, including lithium-ion batteries used in EVs and grid storage, enhancing their energy density, lifespan, and safety.
The unique properties of REEs also make them indispensable for various defense applications and contribute significantly to national security. These elements are vital components in precision-guided weapons, night-vision goggles, and stealth technology, underpinning American military supremacy. For example, lanthanum is used in the production of infrared-absorbing glass crucial for night-vision goggles. REE magnets are employed in missile guidance systems and fin actuators, controlling flight patterns. Neodymium:yttrium-aluminum-garnet (Nd:YAG) lasers, utilizing REEs, serve as rangefinders and target designators in military operations. Sonar systems in submarines and naval ships rely on REEs for their functionality. The advanced F-35 Lightning II aircraft, a cornerstone of modern air power, requires a substantial amount of REEs for its various systems. Recognizing this critical role, the Department of Defense (DOD) is actively engaged in efforts to establish a secure domestic REE supply chain to meet national defense requirements.
Beyond these prominent applications, REEs find uses in a variety of other industrial and medical fields. Cerium oxide is uniquely suited as a polishing agent for glass, used in everything from ordinary mirrors to precision lenses. Lanthanum-based catalysts are employed in petroleum refining to break down large molecules. Cerium-based catalysts are essential in automotive catalytic converters to reduce pollution. In the medical field, gadolinium is used as a contrast agent in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Furthermore, REEs such as cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, and praseodymium are used in steel making to remove impurities and enhance the properties of special alloys. Europium finds applications in light bulbs, nuclear reactors for neutron capture, and various types of lasers. The sheer diversity of these applications underscores the fundamental dependence of modern society and future technological advancements on a stable and secure supply of rare earth minerals. The high specificity and lack of readily available substitutes for many REEs, particularly those with unique magnetic and optical characteristics, further emphasize this dependence. The increasing global focus on transitioning to clean energy technologies is a significant factor driving the rising importance of REEs, especially neodymium and dysprosium, which are crucial for the powerful magnets used in wind turbines and electric vehicles. Moreover, the reliance of the defense sector on these materials for critical military technologies underscores their strategic importance beyond civilian applications, making their secure supply a matter of paramount national security.
Global Reserves and Production of Rare Earth Minerals:
Rare earth mineral deposits are geographically distributed across the globe, with significant reserves identified in several countries. China currently holds the largest known reserves of REEs. Other nations with substantial reserves include Brazil, Vietnam, Russia, India, Australia, and the United States. Additionally, Canada and Greenland possess notable untapped reserves , and countries like Tanzania, South Africa, and Thailand also have identified reserves. Recent geological mapping efforts are further refining our understanding of the location and concentration of these valuable mineral deposits.
Despite the global distribution of reserves, the mining and processing of REEs are heavily concentrated in a few countries. China stands as the dominant player in both mining and processing, accounting for a significant percentage of global production. The United States is the second-largest producer, with the majority of its output currently originating from the Mountain Pass mine in California. Australia is also a significant miner of REEs and is actively developing its processing capabilities to become a more independent supplier. Myanmar (Burma) ranks as another notable producer, although its mining practices have raised environmental concerns. Thailand and Madagascar contribute smaller volumes to the global REE production.
This high concentration of the REE supply chain, particularly China’s dominance, creates significant vulnerabilities for other nations. China not only controls a large share of the mining operations but also holds a near-monopoly on the refining and processing of these minerals, as well as a substantial portion of the permanent magnet manufacturing. This dominance provides China with considerable geopolitical leverage, as demonstrated by past instances of export restrictions.
Rare earth elements are typically classified into two groups based on their atomic weight: light rare earth elements (LREEs) and heavy rare earth elements (HREEs). Generally, LREEs are more abundant in the Earth’s crust. While China is a major producer of both types, it holds a virtual monopoly on the production of the more highly valued HREEs, which are critical for high-performance magnets used in advanced technologies and defense applications. Within the LREE category, neodymium and praseodymium are particularly in high demand due to their use in powerful permanent magnets.
| Country | Estimated Reserves (metric tons of REO) | Estimated Production (metric tons of REO) |
|—|—|—|
| China | 44,000,000 | 270,000 |
| Brazil | 21,000,000 | 2,000 (estimated for 2024) |
| Vietnam | 22,000,000 | 600 (estimated for 2023) |
| Russia | 10,000,000 | 2,600 (estimated for 2023) |
| India | 6,900,000 | 2,900 (estimated for 2023) |
| Australia | 5,700,000 | 18,000 (estimated for 2023) |
| United States | 1,800,000 | 43,000 (estimated for 2023) |
| Greenland | 1,500,000 | — |
| Tanzania | 890,000 | — |
| Canada | 830,000 | — |
| South Africa | 790,000 | — |
| Thailand | 4,500 | 7,100 (estimated for 2023) |
| Myanmar (Burma) | NA | 31,000 (estimated for 2024) |
| Madagascar | NA | 960 (estimated for 2023) |
While REEs are not geologically scarce, the occurrence of economically viable deposits with high concentrations is less common than for many other mineral commodities. The term “rare” refers more to the complex and costly processes required for their extraction and separation into usable forms. The United States, despite possessing domestic reserves, has historically relied heavily on imports, particularly from China, indicating a past underinvestment in the necessary mining and processing infrastructure. China’s near-monopoly on the production of heavy rare earth elements provides it with significant strategic leverage, as these elements are critical for high-temperature magnets used in advanced technologies and various defense applications.
Challenges and Opportunities in the Rare Earth Mineral Supply Chain:
The extraction and processing of rare earth minerals present significant environmental and social challenges. Traditional mining methods, often involving large open pits, consume substantial amounts of energy and can lead to severe water pollution, the generation of radioactive waste, and the disruption of local ecosystems. Poorly regulated mining operations can result in the creation of wastewater ponds filled with toxic acids, heavy metals, and radioactive materials that pose a risk of leaking into groundwater and contaminating the environment. The chemical processing of raw ore to extract and separate REEs requires large quantities of water and potentially toxic chemicals, generating voluminous waste streams that need careful management. The Bayan Obo mine in Inner Mongolia, China, one of the world’s largest REE mines, serves as a stark example of the environmental devastation associated with such operations, including pollution of farmland and water sources. Similarly, unregulated mining activities in Myanmar have resulted in poisoned waterways and ravaged landscapes, impacting local communities and biodiversity. Communities living near REE mining sites around the world have reported various health issues and displacement due to these environmental impacts.
The concentrated nature of the REE supply chain also presents considerable geopolitical risks. China’s dominant position has allowed it to use REEs as a tool for geopolitical leverage, as seen in past instances of imposing export limits during diplomatic disputes. The United States and European nations are increasingly concerned about their dependence on a single dominant supplier and are actively seeking to diversify their sources of REEs. Ongoing trade tensions and the potential for export restrictions further highlight the vulnerability of relying on a highly concentrated supply chain for these critical materials.
In response to these challenges, various countries are making efforts to diversify their REE sources and establish more resilient supply chains. The United States government is actively investing in the development of domestic mining and processing facilities through initiatives like the Defense Production Act. Canada and Australia, both possessing significant REE reserves, are also implementing national strategies and investing in projects to enhance their production and processing capabilities. The European Union has launched strategic projects aimed at securing its own supply of critical raw materials, including REEs, to reduce its reliance on external sources. Several African countries, recognizing the growing global demand, are also becoming increasingly involved in the exploration and development of their REE resources.
The development and adoption of recycling technologies and more sustainable extraction methods offer promising avenues to mitigate the environmental impacts of REE production and reduce the reliance on primary mining. Recycling of REEs from end-of-life products and industrial waste can help recover valuable materials and lessen the need for new mining activities. Research efforts are underway to develop innovative and less environmentally damaging extraction technologies, such as biomining, which uses microbes to leach REEs from ores, and electrokinetic methods that improve leaching efficiency while reducing the use of harsh chemicals. Promoting the widespread adoption of environmentally friendly and sustainable practices across the REE supply chain is crucial for ensuring a more responsible and secure future for these critical materials. The environmental devastation resulting from past REE mining practices in regions like China and Myanmar has spurred a global movement towards more sustainable and responsible extraction methods. Geopolitical tensions and China’s use of REE supply as leverage have accelerated the drive in other nations and regions to establish independent and diversified supply chains. The growing involvement of African countries in REE resource development presents significant opportunities for supply chain diversification, although challenges related to infrastructure, technology transfer, and the implementation of responsible mining practices will need to be addressed.
Countries Seeking Assistance in Developing Rare Earth Mineral Resources:
Several countries with substantial reserves of rare earth minerals currently possess limited development and production capabilities, indicating a need for assistance. Ukraine, for instance, holds significant untapped REE reserves, estimated to be among the largest in Europe, but its development has been hindered by ongoing conflict and state policies. Canada is another nation with vast REE resources, ranking among the top globally in terms of reserves, yet it is not a major commercial producer, suggesting potential for increased development with the right support. A number of African countries, including Tanzania, South Africa, Malawi, and Angola, are witnessing increasing activity in REE exploration and project development, but many of these initiatives are still in the early stages and would benefit from external assistance. Brazil, despite having the world’s second-largest REE reserves, is only now beginning to ramp up its production, indicating a potential need for further investment and technological support.
Several of these countries are actively seeking international partnerships to help develop their REE resources. Ukraine has explicitly offered the United States access to its mineral wealth, including REEs, in exchange for continued military and economic support, highlighting the strategic importance of these resources in geopolitical negotiations. African nations are increasingly looking for foreign investment, technological expertise, and partnerships to develop their mining and refining capabilities, aiming to maximize the economic benefits from their natural resource endowments. Greenland has also entered into partnerships with US companies to advance the development of its significant rare earth deposits, indicating a willingness to collaborate with Western entities.
These countries face a range of challenges in developing their REE resources. Significant financial investment is required to fund exploration, mine development, and the construction of processing facilities. Many nations lack the advanced technological expertise in various stages of the REE supply chain, from efficient extraction to the complex separation and refining processes. The need to adhere to stringent environmental regulations and implement sustainable mining practices adds another layer of complexity and cost to these projects. In some cases, political instability and ongoing conflicts, such as in Ukraine and Myanmar, can severely hinder resource development and make foreign investment more challenging. The eagerness of countries like Ukraine to leverage their REE resources for strategic partnerships, such as securing military aid, underscores the growing geopolitical significance of these minerals. The increasing involvement of Western corporations in African REE projects, in contrast to the dominance of Chinese entities in some other mineral sectors, presents a strategic opportunity for the US to cultivate partnerships and diversify the supply chain through private sector engagement. The numerous hurdles faced by countries beyond China in developing their REE resources, including financial limitations, technological gaps, and the imperative of sustainable mining, highlight specific areas where international assistance, particularly from the United States, could be highly impactful.
Strategic Avenues for US Engagement and Collaboration:
The United States possesses significant expertise and resources that can be valuable in assisting countries seeking to develop their rare earth mineral resources. Sharing best practices in environmentally responsible mining and processing techniques can help partner nations avoid the pitfalls of past unsustainable practices. Providing technological assistance in the complex stages of REE extraction, separation, and refining can help unlock the potential of reserves that are currently uneconomical to develop. Supporting research and development initiatives focused on creating cleaner and more efficient REE processing technologies can benefit the entire global supply chain. The US can also offer its expertise in conducting thorough environmental impact assessments and developing effective strategies for the remediation of mining sites, ensuring long-term ecological sustainability.
Financial investment and development aid from the United States can play a crucial role in catalyzing REE projects in partner countries. Investing directly in promising mining and processing ventures can help overcome the significant upfront capital costs associated with these projects. Providing development aid targeted at building necessary infrastructure, such as transportation networks and energy supplies, can make REE projects more viable. Furthermore, the US government can facilitate private sector investment by offering incentives, such as tax breaks or loan guarantees, and by helping to mitigate political and economic risks associated with projects in developing nations.
Fostering research and development partnerships is another vital avenue for US engagement. Collaborating on developing novel and more efficient methods for REE extraction and processing can lead to breakthroughs that benefit all stakeholders. Joint research into potential substitutes for REEs in certain applications, as well as strategies to reduce overall demand, can lessen the pressure on primary mining. Sharing geological data and expertise can help partner countries better understand the extent and composition of their REE resources, enabling more informed development plans.
Strengthening international collaborations and alliances with like-minded nations is essential for building a more secure and diversified global REE supply chain. Formalizing agreements and partnerships on critical minerals with countries like Canada, Australia, and member states of the European Union can enhance cooperation and coordination. Coordinating strategies to diversify REE supply chains away from dominant players can reduce geopolitical risks and enhance overall resilience. Establishing joint research initiatives and technology sharing programs with these allies can accelerate the development and deployment of innovative solutions. Furthermore, working together to harmonize environmental and social governance standards for REE projects globally can promote responsible and sustainable practices throughout the industry. The United States can leverage its technological and financial strengths to position itself as a preferred partner for countries seeking to develop their REE resources in a responsible and sustainable manner, offering an alternative to China’s dominance, which has often been linked to environmental neglect. Strengthening alliances with nations like Canada, Australia, and EU members can foster a more resilient and diversified REE supply chain, reducing dependence on any single country. Providing financial investment, coupled with technological expertise, is crucial for unlocking the REE potential of many resource-rich but developing nations, offering a tangible way for the US to provide meaningful assistance and build lasting partnerships.
Identifying Receptive Nations for US Assistance:
Several factors can help identify nations that would be receptive to US assistance in developing their rare earth mineral resources. Geopolitical considerations play a significant role, with countries seeking to reduce their reliance on China for strategic resources likely to be more open to partnerships with the United States. Existing allies and partners with strong diplomatic relations provide a solid foundation for collaboration in the critical minerals sector. Nations that have demonstrated a commitment to environmental and social governance standards in their resource development are also likely to be good partners for the US, which places increasing emphasis on responsible practices.
Considering existing partnerships and diplomatic ties, Canada stands out as a strong candidate for further collaboration, with ongoing cooperation in the realm of critical minerals. Australia is another key partner in various critical minerals initiatives and has expressed a desire to diversify its supply chains. Member states of the European Union, through the Minerals Security Partnership and their own strategic projects, represent a significant bloc of nations with shared interests in securing REE supplies. India, with its substantial REE reserves and growing focus on developing its processing capabilities, is an increasingly important partner for the US in this sector.
Several countries are actively working to reduce their reliance on dominant REE suppliers, making them potentially receptive to US assistance. Japan, having experienced supply disruptions in the past, has been actively seeking to diversify its REE supply chains and has existing collaborations with other nations. European nations, driven by a desire for greater strategic autonomy in critical raw materials, are implementing ambitious plans to secure their own sources and would likely welcome collaboration with the US.
| Country | REE Reserve Estimate | Current Production Level | Existing US Relations | Expressed Need for Assistance | Geopolitical Alignment |
|—|—|—|—|—|—|
| Ukraine | Medium | Low | Moderate | Yes | Aligned |
| Canada | High | Low | Strong | Potential | Aligned |
| Australia | High | Medium | Strong | Potential | Aligned |
| Brazil | High | Low | Moderate | Potential | Neutral |
| India | Medium | Low | Strong | Potential | Neutral |
| Greenland | Medium | Low | Moderate | Yes | Aligned |
| Tanzania | Medium | Low | Limited | Potential | Neutral |
| S. Africa | Medium | Low | Moderate | Potential | Neutral |
Countries with significant REE reserves and a clear interest in international partnerships, such as Ukraine and potentially various African nations, present themselves as prime candidates for US assistance. Established allies like Canada, Australia, and EU member states, while already pursuing their own strategies, would likely value US collaboration to further strengthen and secure the overall Western REE supply chain. India’s substantial REE reserves and its growing ambition to develop its processing capabilities align strategically with US objectives of diversifying the supply chain, making it a potentially valuable partner for collaboration and support.
Policy Recommendations for the United States:
To secure a diversified and resilient REE supply chain, the United States should adopt a multi-faceted approach encompassing domestic development, international cooperation, and a commitment to sustainability.
The US government should continue to support and incentivize the development of domestic REE mining, processing, and manufacturing capabilities through financial mechanisms like the Defense Production Act and by streamlining the permitting process for new projects. Investing in research and development of innovative and cleaner extraction and processing technologies is crucial for reducing environmental impacts and enhancing economic competitiveness. Establishing strategic stockpiles of critical REEs can also help mitigate short-term supply disruptions.
International cooperation and the formation of strong partnerships with allies and resource-rich nations are paramount. The US should actively engage with countries like Canada, Australia, EU member states, and India to coordinate strategies for supply chain diversification, promote joint research initiatives, and establish secure and responsible sourcing agreements. Providing targeted financial and technological assistance to countries like Ukraine and select African nations can help them develop their REE resources sustainably, offering alternative supply sources.
A strong emphasis on environmental and social governance (ESG) standards should underpin all US efforts in the REE sector, both domestically and internationally. Promoting responsible mining and processing practices, supporting environmental remediation efforts, and ensuring fair labor standards will not only contribute to a more sustainable industry but also position the US as a preferred partner for nations seeking to develop their resources ethically.
Conclusion:
Rare earth minerals are the bedrock of modern technology and will only grow in importance as the world transitions to a clean energy economy and advanced defense systems. The current concentration of the global REE supply chain presents significant risks that the United States must proactively address. By strategically engaging in international cooperation, fostering technological innovation, supporting domestic development, and championing sustainable practices, the US can play a pivotal role in creating a more secure, diversified, and responsible global rare earth mineral supply chain, thereby safeguarding its economic and national security interests in the decades to come.

I. Foundational Texts on Rare Earth Elements:

1. General overviews of rare earth elements (REEs) and their properties
2. Handbooks or encyclopedias on critical minerals
3. Early research papers highlighting the unique characteristics of REEs

II. Global Supply Chain Dynamics:

4. Reports on global REE reserves and production
5. Analyses of China’s dominance in the REE market
6. Studies on the vulnerability of REE supply chains
7. Research on diversification of REE sources
8. Assessments of alternative mining locations (e.g., seabed, other countries)
9. Analyses of the role of international trade in REEs
10. Studies on the impact of export restrictions and tariffs

III. Technological Applications:

11. Research on REEs in permanent magnets (e.g., for electric vehicles, wind turbines)
12. Studies on REEs in catalysts (e.g., for emissions control)
13. Analyses of REEs in phosphors (e.g., for displays and lighting)
14. Research on REEs in alloys and other materials
15. Overviews of REEs in defense technologies
16. Studies on the role of REEs in renewable energy technologies
17. Analyses of REEs in electronics and communication devices
18. Research on REEs in medical imaging and treatments
19. Assessments of future demand for REEs based on technological trends
20. Studies on the criticality of specific REEs for different applications

IV. United States Engagement and Policy:

21. US Geological Survey (USGS) reports on critical minerals
22. US government strategies and policies related to REEs
23. Congressional Research Service (CRS) reports on REEs
24. Analyses of US dependence on foreign REE sources
25. Studies on opportunities for domestic REE mining and processing
26. Research on US government initiatives to secure REE supply chains
27. Assessments of potential collaborations with allied nations
28. Analyses of the role of the US Department of Defense in REE security
29. Studies on US policies related to stockpiling critical minerals
30. Research on US efforts to promote REE recycling and reuse

V. Economic Considerations:

31. Economic analyses of the REE market
32. Studies on the cost of REE production and processing
33. Assessments of the economic impact of REE supply disruptions
34. Research on investment opportunities in the REE sector in the US
35. Analyses of the role of innovation in reducing REE dependence
36. Studies on the price volatility of REEs
37. Assessments of the economic benefits of a secure domestic REE supply
38. Research on the development of REE-related industries in the US
39. Analyses of the impact of environmental regulations on REE economics
40. Studies on the global competition for REE resources

VI. Environmental and Social Impacts:

41. Research on the environmental impacts of REE mining (e.g., land degradation, water pollution)
42. Studies on the environmental challenges of REE processing (e.g., radioactive waste)
43. Assessments of the social impacts of REE mining communities
44. Research on sustainable REE mining and processing technologies
45. Analyses of regulations and best practices for environmental protection in the REE sector
46. Studies on the lifecycle assessment of REE products
47. Assessments of the carbon footprint of REE production
48. Research on the ethical sourcing of REEs
49. Analyses of the environmental justice aspects of REE extraction
50. Studies on the remediation of REE mining sites

VII. Innovation and Alternatives:

51. Research on new methods for REE extraction and processing
52. Studies on the development of alternative materials to replace REEs
53. Analyses of advancements in REE recycling and recovery technologies
54. Research on reducing the amount of REEs needed in applications
55. Studies on the potential of urban mining for REE recovery
56. Assessments of the feasibility of synthetic REE production
57. Research on biomining approaches for REE extraction
58. Analyses of the role of materials science in addressing REE challenges
59. Studies on the development of closed-loop REE supply chains
60. Research on the use of artificial intelligence and machine learning in REE discovery and processing

VIII. Regional and Country-Specific Studies:

61. Case studies of REE industries in specific countries (e.g., Australia, Canada, Brazil)
62. Analyses of REE resources and policies in Europe
63. Studies on REE developments in Africa
64. Assessments of Russia’s role in the global REE market
65. Research on the REE potential of Southeast Asian nations
66. Analyses of Japan’s strategies for REE security
67. Studies on South Korea’s approach to critical minerals
68. Assessments of India’s REE resources and ambitions
69. Research on the geopolitical implications of REE competition in specific regions
70. Analyses of the impact of regional trade agreements on REE supply

IX. Industry Publications and Reports:

71. Reports from industry associations related to mining and materials
72. Market analyses and forecasts from consulting firms
73. Company reports on REE production and activities
74. Trade publications covering the rare earth industry
75. News articles and investigative reports on REE issues

X. Academic Journals:

76. Resources Policy
77. Minerals Engineering
78. Journal of Cleaner Production
79. Environmental Science & Technology
80. Nature Materials
81. Science
82. Advanced Materials
83. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
84. Energy & Environmental Science
85. JOM: The Journal of The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society
86. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology
87. Geochemistry International
88. Ore Geology Reviews
89. Economic Geology
90. The Extractive Industries and Society

XI. Government and International Organizations:

91. Reports from the International Energy Agency (IEA)
92. Publications from the World Bank
93. Reports from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
94. Documents from the European Commission on critical raw materials
95. Reports from the Geological Survey of other countries (e.g., British Geological Survey)
96. Policy briefs from think tanks focused on energy and security
97. Reports from the Government Accountability Office (GAO)
98. Documents from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
99. Publications from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
100. Reports from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on commodity markets

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